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Summary Table

Domain	Detail
Risk Factors	Adults aged 30 to 60, slight female predominance, association with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, exposure to certain medications (gold, antimalarials, thiazides, ACE inhibitors), dental amalgam fillings, underlying autoimmune conditions
Etiology	T-cell mediated autoimmune reaction against basal keratinocytes. The exact antigenic trigger is unknown in idiopathic cases, but HCV and certain drugs are well-established provocateurs.
Patient Presentation	Pruritic, violaceous (purple), flat-topped papules and plaques. May also present with painful oral erosions, nail dystrophy, or scarring alopecia depending on the subtype involved.
Classic Physical Exam	The 6 Ps: Pruritic, Purple (violaceous), Polygonal, Planar (flat-topped), Papules, and Plaques. Wickham striae (fine, white, reticular lines on the surface of lesions). Koebner phenomenon (new lesions at sites of trauma). Predilection for the wrists, ankles, trunk, and flexural surfaces.
Key Diagnostic Results	Clinical diagnosis in classic cases. Biopsy (gold standard when uncertain) shows a band-like (lichenoid) lymphocytic infiltrate at the dermoepidermal junction, sawtooth pattern of rete ridges, civatte bodies (colloid/apoptotic bodies), and Max-Joseph spaces (clefting at the basal layer). Direct immunofluorescence (DIF) shows shaggy fibrinogen deposits along the basement membrane zone.
Management	Topical corticosteroids (first-line for localized disease), systemic corticosteroids for severe/widespread disease, topical calcineurin inhibitors for mucosal involvement, and HCV screening in every patient diagnosed with lichen planus.
Keywords	"Wickham striae," "6 Ps," "violaceous flat-topped papules," "sawtooth rete ridges," "civatte bodies," "band-like lymphocytic infiltrate," "shaggy fibrinogen on DIF," "hepatitis C association," "Koebner phenomenon"

1. Pathophysiology

Lichen planus is a cell-mediated autoimmune disorder in which cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes target and destroy basal keratinocytes of the epidermis. The fundamental mechanism is a loss of immune tolerance to antigens expressed on or near the basal layer of the epithelium. Understanding this single concept unlocks the entire clinical and histopathologic picture.

The process begins when an unknown trigger (or a known one, such as HCV or a drug) causes basal keratinocytes to express altered self-antigens or upregulate MHC class I molecules on their surface. Antigen-presenting cells (particularly Langerhans cells in the epidermis) process these antigens and present them to CD4+ helper T cells in regional lymph nodes. The activated CD4+ cells then recruit cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes to the dermoepidermal junction. These CD8+ T cells recognize the altered basal keratinocytes through MHC class I-restricted interactions and initiate apoptosis of the basal cells via the perforin-granzyme pathway and the Fas-FasL pathway.

The apoptotic basal keratinocytes become eosinophilic, rounded remnants known as civatte bodies (also called colloid bodies or apoptotic bodies). This is a high-yield histopathologic finding. These apoptotic fragments drop into the papillary dermis and can be highlighted by periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) staining.

As the basal layer is progressively destroyed, the dermoepidermal junction becomes disrupted, creating small clefts known as Max-Joseph spaces. This basal layer destruction also explains the characteristic post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation seen in resolving lichen planus lesions: melanin released from dying melanocytes and basal keratinocytes is taken up by dermal macrophages (melanophages), producing the persistent dark discoloration.

The band-like (lichenoid) lymphocytic infiltrate hugging the dermoepidermal junction is the histologic hallmark. This dense infiltrate obscures the basal layer, a finding sometimes described as the interface being "hidden" by the inflammatory cells. The irregular destruction and regeneration of the basal layer produces the sawtooth (irregular) pattern of rete ridges, which is another frequently tested finding. The overlying epidermis responds with hypergranulosis (thickening of the granular layer), and it is this wedge-shaped or irregular hypergranulosis that produces the Wickham striae visible clinically as fine white lines on the surface of lesions.

The Koebner phenomenon (isomorphic response) occurs because trauma to the skin exposes basal keratinocytes to the already-primed immune system, triggering new lesions along sites of mechanical injury. This phenomenon is shared with psoriasis and vitiligo, but the vignette context (violaceous, flat-topped papules along a scratch line) makes the diagnosis unmistakable.

The association with hepatitis C is immunologically logical. HCV is a hepatotropic virus, but it also has lymphotropic properties. Chronic HCV infection induces a state of immune dysregulation with expansion of autoreactive T-cell clones. These clones can cross-react with epithelial antigens, precipitating the lichenoid immune response. The association is strong enough that all patients diagnosed with lichen planus should be screened for HCV, a point tested repeatedly on exams.

2. Classification and Clinical Manifestation

Cutaneous Variants

Variant	Morphology and Distribution	Key Clinical Points
Classic (papular)	Violaceous, flat-topped, polygonal papules and plaques on wrists, ankles, lower back, and flexural surfaces	Most common form. Wickham striae visible. Self-limited in most cases (resolves within 1 to 2 years).
Hypertrophic	Thick, verrucous (warty), hyperkeratotic plaques, typically on the anterior shins and ankles	Extremely pruritic. Most chronic and treatment-resistant variant. Can mimic lichen simplex chronicus or squamous cell carcinoma.
Atrophic	Thin, slightly depressed, violaceous patches	Uncommon. Represents a resolved or late-stage form of classic lichen planus.
Annular	Ring-shaped plaques with a raised violaceous border and central clearing or hyperpigmentation	Predilection for the glans penis and scrotum in men. Can mimic tinea or granuloma annulare.
Linear	Papules arranged in a linear streak	Often represents Koebner phenomenon along a scratch or trauma line. Can also follow Blaschko lines.
Vesiculobullous (bullous)	Vesicles and bullae arising on existing lichen planus plaques	Rare. Results from severe basal layer destruction creating large Max-Joseph spaces. Must be distinguished from bullous pemphigoid.
Actinic (lichen planus subtropicus)	Annular or nummular plaques on sun-exposed areas	Seen in tropical and subtropical populations. Photodistributed.
Lichen planopilaris	Perifollicular erythema, follicular keratotic plugs, and progressive scarring (cicatricial) alopecia of the scalp	Destroys the follicular stem cells in the bulge region, producing permanent hair loss. A critical diagnosis to recognize early.
Lichen planus pigmentosus	Diffuse or reticulated hyperpigmented macules and patches, predominantly on sun-exposed skin and flexural areas	More common in darker skin tones. Minimal or absent pruritus. Often confused with melasma or drug-induced hyperpigmentation.

Mucosal Variants

Variant	Clinical Features	Key Clinical Points
Reticular (most common oral form)	Bilateral, symmetric, lace-like white lines (Wickham striae) on the buccal mucosa	Usually asymptomatic. Often an incidental finding on dental examination.
Erosive	Painful, erythematous erosions and ulcerations surrounded by white striae, most commonly on the buccal mucosa and gingiva	Most clinically significant oral form. Causes pain with eating and speaking. Carries a 1 to 5% risk of malignant transformation to oral squamous cell carcinoma over decades, necessitating long-term surveillance.
Atrophic / Erythematous	Diffuse erythema of the attached gingiva ("desquamative gingivitis")	Must be distinguished from mucous membrane pemphigoid and pemphigus vulgaris, which also cause desquamative gingivitis.
Vulvovaginal	Erosive or desquamative lesions of the vulva, vaginal mucosa, or both	Painful, chronic. Can cause vaginal synechiae and introital stenosis. Part of the vulvovaginal-gingival syndrome when both oral and genital mucosae are involved.

Nail Involvement

Finding	Detail
Thinning and ridging	Longitudinal ridging and brittleness of the nail plate
Pterygium (dorsal)	Forward growth of the proximal nail fold onto the nail plate, producing a V-shaped scar. This is the most characteristic nail finding of lichen planus and can cause permanent nail destruction. Distinguishes it from other causes of nail dystrophy.
Twenty-nail dystrophy (trachyonychia)	All 20 nails become rough, ridged, and sandpapered in appearance. More common in children. Not exclusive to lichen planus.

3. Diagnostic Workup

Test	Role	Key Findings
Clinical examination	Best initial test	Classic 6 Ps with Wickham striae at characteristic sites; bilateral reticular white striae on buccal mucosa
Dermoscopy	Non-invasive adjunct	Wickham striae (white crossing lines), dotted/linear vessels, violaceous background, peripheral white-blue structureless areas
Skin/mucosal punch biopsy with H&E	Gold standard / most accurate test	Band-like lichenoid lymphocytic infiltrate at the dermoepidermal junction, sawtooth rete ridges, hypergranulosis, civatte bodies, Max-Joseph spaces
Direct immunofluorescence (DIF)	Confirmatory adjunct (especially for bullous or erosive variants)	Shaggy fibrinogen deposits along the basement membrane zone. Positive in lichen planus. Distinguishes from autoimmune blistering diseases which show IgG or C3 patterns.
Hepatitis C serology (anti-HCV antibody)	Mandatory screening in all patients	Must be ordered in every new diagnosis of lichen planus. If positive, confirm with HCV RNA PCR.
Hepatic function panel	Screening for liver disease	Elevated transaminases may suggest HCV or drug-induced hepatitis as the underlying trigger
Medication review	Identify lichenoid drug eruption	Gold salts, antimalarials (chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine), thiazide diuretics, ACE inhibitors, NSAIDs, beta-blockers, sulfonylureas

In the majority of cases, lichen planus is diagnosed clinically based on the characteristic morphology and distribution. A patient presenting with violaceous, flat-topped, polygonal papules on the flexural wrists with visible Wickham striae and a history of pruritus has a presentation so classic that further testing is not strictly necessary. Similarly, bilateral, symmetric, lace-like white striae on the buccal mucosa in an adult is virtually pathognomonic.

However, the gold standard for confirmation is a punch biopsy with histopathologic examination. This is indicated when the presentation is atypical, when the differential includes conditions requiring different management (e.g., early mycosis fungoides, psoriasis, lichenoid drug eruption, oral leukoplakia, squamous cell carcinoma), or when the disease fails to respond to treatment. The biopsy should be taken from an established, well-developed lesion (not from an excoriated or eroded area, which may show only non-diagnostic inflammation).

The histopathologic findings are among the most testable in dermatopathology. At low power, the pattern is described as a lichenoid (interface) dermatitis with a dense band-like lymphocytic infiltrate that obscures the dermoepidermal junction. At higher magnification, you see: (1) irregular acanthosis with sawtooth rete ridges, (2) wedge-shaped hypergranulosis (which produces the clinical Wickham striae), (3) civatte bodies (eosinophilic, round, apoptotic keratinocytes at or below the basal layer), (4) Max-Joseph spaces (small clefts between the epidermis and dermis from basal cell destruction), and (5) melanin incontinence in the papillary dermis (melanophages from basal layer damage).

Direct immunofluorescence (DIF) is a valuable adjunct. In lichen planus, DIF shows an irregular, shaggy band of fibrinogen deposited along the basement membrane zone. This is not specific to lichen planus alone (it can be seen in other lichenoid dermatoses), but it is useful for distinguishing lichen planus from autoimmune blistering diseases. In pemphigus vulgaris, DIF shows a "chicken-wire" pattern of IgG around keratinocytes. In bullous pemphigoid, DIF shows a linear band of IgG and C3 at the basement membrane. The fibrinogen-dominant, shaggy pattern points toward lichen planus.

HCV screening is not optional. Anti-HCV antibody testing should be ordered in every patient newly diagnosed with lichen planus, regardless of subtype. If the antibody screen is positive, confirm active infection with HCV RNA by PCR and check a hepatic function panel. Treatment of the underlying HCV infection can lead to improvement or resolution of the lichen planus.

A thorough medication review is critical. Lichenoid drug eruptions can be clinically and histologically indistinguishable from idiopathic lichen planus. The key clue is temporal association: the eruption appears weeks to months after starting the offending medication. Lichenoid drug eruptions tend to be more widespread, more photodistributed, and may show eosinophils on biopsy (not typical of classic lichen planus). The most commonly implicated agents include gold, antimalarials, thiazide diuretics, ACE inhibitors, and beta-blockers.

4. Management and Treatment

Setting	Intervention	Detail
Localized cutaneous (first-line)	High-potency topical corticosteroids	Clobetasol 0.05% ointment or betamethasone dipropionate 0.05% ointment applied twice daily for 2 to 4 weeks, then taper
Localized cutaneous (second-line)	Topical calcineurin inhibitors	Tacrolimus 0.1% ointment twice daily, particularly useful for facial, genital, or intertriginous involvement
Oral mucosal (first-line)	Topical corticosteroids (mucosal formulation)	High-potency steroid gel (e.g., fluocinonide 0.05% gel) or triamcinolone in adhesive paste (Orabase) applied 2 to 3 times daily after meals. Dexamethasone 0.5 mg/5 mL oral rinse, swish and spit, 3 times daily for erosive disease.
Oral mucosal (second-line)	Topical tacrolimus 0.1%	Applied directly to erosive lesions twice daily. Effective when topical steroids alone are insufficient.
Widespread/severe cutaneous	Systemic corticosteroids	Prednisone 0.5 to 1 mg/kg/day for 2 to 6 weeks with gradual taper over 2 to 4 weeks
Steroid-sparing (refractory)	Oral retinoids	Acitretin 20 to 30 mg/day, particularly effective for hypertrophic and oral lichen planus. Contraindicated in pregnancy (teratogenic, long washout period).
Steroid-sparing (refractory)	Methotrexate	7.5 to 15 mg once weekly. Monitor CBC and liver function. Supplement with folic acid 1 mg daily (except on methotrexate day).
Steroid-sparing (refractory)	Mycophenolate mofetil	1 to 1.5 g twice daily for severe erosive oral lichen planus unresponsive to topical therapy
Hypertrophic variant	Intralesional triamcinolone	5 to 10 mg/mL injected every 4 to 6 weeks into refractory, thickened plaques
Phototherapy	Narrowband UVB	For widespread cutaneous disease. 2 to 3 sessions per week for 8 to 12 weeks.
Lichen planopilaris	Topical/intralesional steroids + hydroxychloroquine	Goal is to halt progression. Hydroxychloroquine 200 mg twice daily. Hair already lost from cicatricial alopecia will not regrow.
HCV-associated	Treat the HCV infection	Direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy per hepatology guidelines. Lichen planus may improve or resolve with viral clearance.

Step 1: Determine the extent and subtype. The management of lichen planus is guided entirely by the subtype (cutaneous vs. mucosal vs. both), the severity (localized vs. widespread), and the presence or absence of an identifiable trigger (HCV, drug). This assessment dictates whether you begin with topical therapy alone or escalate to systemic agents.

Step 2: Localized cutaneous disease. For the majority of patients presenting with a limited number of papules or plaques, high-potency topical corticosteroids are first-line. Clobetasol propionate 0.05% ointment applied twice daily to affected areas for 2 to 4 weeks is standard. The ointment vehicle is preferred for thickened, lichenified plaques because it penetrates better and has an occlusive quality. After initial control, transition to a mid-potency steroid (triamcinolone 0.1%) or intermittent application (twice weekly) to prevent rebound and avoid cutaneous atrophy.

For lesions on thin-skinned areas (face, genitals, axillae), topical tacrolimus 0.1% ointment is the preferred alternative to avoid steroid-induced skin thinning. Apply twice daily until the lesion resolves, then taper to once daily and then to an as-needed maintenance schedule.

Step 3: Oral/mucosal disease. Reticular oral lichen planus that is asymptomatic requires no treatment, only monitoring. Erosive oral lichen planus requires active intervention because it causes pain and carries a long-term risk of malignant transformation.

First-line for erosive oral disease is a high-potency topical corticosteroid in a mucosal-adherent vehicle: fluocinonide 0.05% gel or triamcinolone acetonide in Orabase (adhesive paste) applied to the lesion after meals 2 to 3 times daily. For extensive erosive disease, a dexamethasone 0.5 mg/5 mL oral rinse (swish for 2 minutes, spit, avoid eating or drinking for 30 minutes) 3 times daily provides broader mucosal coverage.

If topical steroids are insufficient after 4 to 6 weeks, topical tacrolimus 0.1% ointment applied directly to the erosive areas is second-line. A critical precaution: patients using potent topical immunosuppressants on oral mucosa require periodic monitoring for oral candidiasis, which is a common complication.

Step 4: Severe, widespread, or refractory disease. When cutaneous disease is too extensive for topical therapy, systemic corticosteroids are used for rapid control. A typical regimen is prednisone 0.5 to 1 mg/kg/day for 2 to 6 weeks, followed by a gradual taper over 2 to 4 additional weeks. The purpose of the systemic steroid course is to "break the flare" and suppress the autoimmune attack, after which the patient transitions to topical maintenance or a steroid-sparing agent.

For long-term control or steroid-dependent disease, the most commonly used steroid-sparing agents are:

Acitretin (20 to 30 mg/day): An oral retinoid that is particularly effective for hypertrophic cutaneous lichen planus and oral erosive disease. It modulates keratinocyte proliferation and has immunomodulatory effects. The critical contraindication is pregnancy: acitretin is severely teratogenic (Category X), and because its metabolite (etretinate) is stored in adipose tissue, women of childbearing age must use reliable contraception for 3 years after stopping the drug.

Methotrexate (7.5 to 15 mg once weekly): Used for refractory widespread disease. Monitor complete blood count and liver function at baseline and periodically. Supplement with folic acid 1 mg daily on non-methotrexate days to reduce hematologic and GI toxicity. Contraindicated in pregnancy, significant hepatic disease, and significant renal impairment.

Mycophenolate mofetil (1 to 1.5 g twice daily): Reserved for severe erosive oral or vulvovaginal lichen planus unresponsive to all other measures.

Step 5: Address the underlying trigger. If HCV is identified, referral to hepatology for direct-acting antiviral (DAA) therapy is essential. Achieving sustained virologic response (SVR) can lead to partial or complete resolution of lichen planus. If a lichenoid drug eruption is suspected, discontinuation of the offending agent is the definitive treatment, though resolution may take weeks to months.

Step 6: Long-term surveillance for oral disease. Patients with erosive oral lichen planus require clinical follow-up every 6 to 12 months for life to monitor for malignant transformation to oral squamous cell carcinoma. Any new indurated, ulcerated, or non-healing lesion within a field of oral lichen planus should prompt an immediate biopsy.

5. Differential Diagnosis and Distractors

Differential	Why It Looks Similar	Key Discriminator
Lichenoid drug eruption	Clinically and histologically nearly identical to idiopathic lichen planus (violaceous papules, lichenoid infiltrate on biopsy)	Temporal relationship to a new medication (weeks to months after initiation). Tends to be more widespread and photodistributed. Biopsy may show eosinophils in the infiltrate and parakeratosis, which are unusual in classic lichen planus. Resolves after drug withdrawal (though slowly).
Psoriasis (guttate or plaque)	Scaly, well-demarcated plaques; can also show Koebner phenomenon	Psoriasis lesions have silvery-white micaceous scale (not Wickham striae), Auspitz sign on scale removal, and favor extensor surfaces (elbows, knees). Biopsy shows Munro microabscesses and thinned suprapapillary plates, not sawtooth rete ridges or civatte bodies. Nails show pitting (not pterygium).
Secondary syphilis	Widespread papular eruption including oral mucous patches, can appear violaceous	Secondary syphilis involves the palms and soles (a classic distribution clue). Associated with generalized lymphadenopathy, condylomata lata, and constitutional symptoms. RPR/VDRL and FTA-ABS are positive. Biopsy shows plasma cell-rich infiltrate, not a band-like lymphocytic pattern.
Pityriasis rosea	Widespread papular/scaly eruption on the trunk	Pityriasis rosea has a herald patch (a single larger lesion preceding the generalized eruption), a Christmas tree pattern along skin cleavage lines, and lesions are salmon-pink with a trailing collarette of scale, not violaceous or flat-topped. Self-limited within 6 to 8 weeks.
Oral leukoplakia	White patch on the oral mucosa	Leukoplakia is a single, adherent, white plaque that cannot be scraped off. It lacks the bilateral, symmetric, reticular (lace-like) pattern of Wickham striae. Leukoplakia carries premalignant potential and requires biopsy to rule out dysplasia. Lichen planus shows the characteristic fine white network bilaterally.
Oral candidiasis (thrush)	White lesions in the oral cavity	Candidal plaques are white, curd-like patches that can be scraped off with a tongue depressor, revealing an erythematous base underneath. Lichen planus Wickham striae cannot be scraped off. KOH preparation of a candidal scraping shows pseudohyphae and budding yeast.
Mucous membrane pemphigoid (cicatricial pemphigoid)	Erosive, painful oral and genital mucous membrane lesions; desquamative gingivitis	Pemphigoid shows subepithelial blistering on biopsy with a linear band of IgG and C3 at the basement membrane on DIF (not shaggy fibrinogen). Ocular involvement with progressive scarring (symblepharon) is characteristic. Nikolsky sign may be positive.
Pemphigus vulgaris	Painful oral erosions, sometimes the initial presentation	Pemphigus shows flaccid blisters and a positive Nikolsky sign. DIF reveals intercellular (chicken-wire) IgG deposits throughout the epidermis, not basement membrane fibrinogen. Biopsy shows suprabasal acantholysis with a "tombstone" pattern of basal cells.
Mycosis fungoides (cutaneous T-cell lymphoma)	Chronic, scaly, erythematous to violaceous patches/plaques that can mimic any inflammatory dermatosis	Mycosis fungoides favors sun-protected areas (bathing trunk distribution), may show poikiloderma (atrophy, telangiectasia, mottled pigmentation), and progresses slowly through patch, plaque, and tumor stages. Biopsy shows epidermotropic atypical lymphocytes with cerebriform nuclei (Pautrier microabscesses). Any non-resolving lichen planus-like plaque warrants biopsy to exclude this.
Lichen simplex chronicus (neurodermatitis)	Thickened, pruritic, well-circumscribed plaque at a similar location (wrists, ankles)	LSC shows lichenification (exaggerated skin lines from chronic scratching) without the violaceous color, polygonal shape, or Wickham striae of lichen planus. The history reveals chronic habitual scratching. Biopsy shows compact orthokeratosis and vertical collagen fibers, not a lichenoid interface pattern.

6. Traps and High-Yield Pearls

The most common way students lose points on lichen planus questions is by forgetting the hepatitis C screening requirement. A vignette may present a textbook case of lichen planus and ask for the "next best step" or "most appropriate additional evaluation." The temptation is to jump directly to topical steroids. However, the correct answer is to order anti-HCV antibody testing first if it has not been done. This is one of those associations that test-writers exploit precisely because it is easy to overlook when the dermatologic diagnosis seems straightforward.

A second common trap is confusing lichen planus with a lichenoid drug eruption. Both are clinically and histologically similar. The key differentiator is the drug exposure history. If a vignette describes a patient who started a new medication (especially an ACE inhibitor, thiazide, antimalarial, or gold salt) weeks to months before developing violaceous papules, the answer is lichenoid drug eruption, and the treatment is drug withdrawal, not immunosuppression.

A third trap involves oral lichen planus and malignancy risk. Students often remember that oral leukoplakia is premalignant but forget that erosive oral lichen planus also carries a well-documented (1 to 5%) risk of transformation to squamous cell carcinoma. Any exam question describing a long-standing erosive oral lichen planus lesion that develops a new area of induration, persistent ulceration, or rapid growth is testing whether you will order a biopsy to rule out malignancy.

The nail finding trap is also worth noting. Exam questions may describe nail dystrophy and ask you to identify the underlying cause. The finding of dorsal pterygium (forward growth of the proximal nail fold fusing with the nail bed) is characteristic of lichen planus and distinguishes it from psoriatic nail disease (which shows pitting, oil-drop sign, onycholysis, and subungual hyperkeratosis).

Finally, on histopathology questions, the shaggy fibrinogen on DIF is the discriminating detail. When a question describes a band-like lymphocytic infiltrate with interface changes and asks for the DIF pattern, the answer is shaggy fibrinogen along the basement membrane. This distinguishes lichen planus from pemphigus (intercellular IgG), pemphigoid (linear IgG/C3 at the basement membrane), and lupus (granular IgG/IgM/C3 at the basement membrane, the "lupus band test").

The core competency being tested across all lichen planus questions is pattern recognition through morphology (the 6 Ps and Wickham striae), the HCV association, accurate identification of histopathologic findings, and the ability to separate lichen planus from its closest mimics using precise clinical and laboratory discriminators.

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