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Summary Table

Feature	Details
Risk Factors	Cryptorchidism (strongest association), personal or family history of testicular cancer, Klinefelter syndrome, testicular dysgenesis syndrome, age 15 to 35 years
Etiology	95% are germ cell tumors (GCTs) arising from germ cell neoplasia in situ (GCNIS); 5% are sex cord-stromal tumors
Patient Presentation	Painless testicular mass or swelling; scrotal heaviness; dull ache in the lower abdomen or groin
Classic Physical Exam	Firm, nontender intratesticular mass that does not transilluminate
Key Diagnostic Results	Scrotal ultrasound (best initial test); serum AFP, beta-hCG, LDH (tumor markers); radical inguinal orchiectomy (diagnostic and therapeutic)
Management	Radical inguinal orchiectomy for all types; seminoma: radiation or chemotherapy; NSGCT: chemotherapy (BEP) with or without RPLND
Keywords	"Painless testicular mass," "does not transilluminate," "radical inguinal orchiectomy," "never trans-scrotal biopsy," "AFP never elevated in pure seminoma"

1. Pathophysiology

Testicular tumors arise predominantly from germ cells, which account for approximately 95% of all testicular neoplasms. The accepted model of pathogenesis begins with germ cell neoplasia in situ (GCNIS), formerly called intratubular germ cell neoplasia or carcinoma in situ. GCNIS represents malignant transformation of primordial germ cells during embryonic development, which then remains dormant until puberty, when hormonal stimulation (primarily gonadotropins and testosterone) drives progression into an invasive tumor. This embryonic origin explains why testicular cancer peaks in young men between 15 and 35 years of age.

Cryptorchidism is the strongest risk factor because the undescended testis is exposed to the higher temperature of the abdomen or inguinal canal. This thermal injury disrupts normal germ cell maturation and promotes GCNIS formation. Importantly, orchiopexy reduces but does not eliminate the cancer risk, and the contralateral, normally descended testis also carries an increased risk (though smaller). This is because the defect is intrinsic to the germ cells themselves, not simply the location of the testis.

From GCNIS, the tumor can differentiate along two major pathways. Seminoma retains the morphology of primitive germ cells and forms sheets of large, round, uniform "fried egg" cells with lymphocytic infiltration. Non-seminomatous germ cell tumors (NSGCTs) represent further differentiation: embryonal carcinoma resembles undifferentiated stem cells with high mitotic activity, yolk sac tumors differentiate toward extraembryonic yolk sac structures (forming Schiller-Duval bodies), choriocarcinoma differentiates toward placental trophoblast (producing beta-hCG), and teratoma differentiates into somatic tissues from all three germ layers.

The clinical manifestation of a painless testicular mass directly follows from this biology. These tumors grow within the testicular parenchyma, expanding it without stretching pain-sensitive structures early on. Approximately 10% of patients present with acute testicular pain due to hemorrhage or infarction within the tumor, which can mislead the clinician toward a diagnosis of epididymitis or torsion.

Metastatic pattern differs between subtypes. Seminoma and most NSGCTs spread via lymphatics to the retroperitoneal (para-aortic) lymph nodes first. This explains why patients may present with back pain or a palpable abdominal mass. Choriocarcinoma is the critical exception: it spreads hematogenously, bypassing lymphatics, and can produce hemorrhagic metastases in the lungs, brain, and liver even when the primary tumor is small.

2. Classification and Clinical Manifestation

Category	Subtype	Peak Age	Tumor Markers	Key Histologic Feature	Clinical Pearls
Seminoma	Classic	25 to 45	beta-hCG (10 to 15%), LDH; AFP never elevated	"Fried egg" cells, lymphocytic infiltrate	Most common single type in adults; highly radiosensitive
Seminoma	Spermatocytic	>50	None	Three cell populations (small, medium, large)	Excellent prognosis; does not arise from GCNIS; virtually never metastasizes
NSGCT	Embryonal carcinoma	20 to 30	AFP, beta-hCG	Poorly differentiated, hemorrhagic and necrotic	Most aggressive nonseminomatous type; often mixed with other elements
	Yolk sac tumor (endodermal sinus tumor)	Children <3 (pure); adults (mixed)	AFP (always elevated)	Schiller-Duval bodies (glomeruloid structures)	Most common testicular tumor in children
	Choriocarcinoma	20 to 30	beta-hCG (markedly elevated)	Syncytiotrophoblasts and cytotrophoblasts	Worst prognosis among GCTs; hematogenous spread; hemorrhagic metastases; gynecomastia
	Teratoma	Any	Usually none	All three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm)	Chemo-resistant; must be surgically resected; malignant potential in post-pubertal adults (benign in prepubertal children)
	Mixed GCT	20 to 30	Depends on components present	Mix of two or more subtypes	Most common NSGCT overall when all mixed types are grouped together
Sex Cord-Stromal	Leydig cell tumor	Any	Androgens, estrogens (not AFP or hCG)	Reinke crystals (eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusions)	Precocious puberty in boys; gynecomastia in adults; usually benign
Sex Cord-Stromal	Sertoli cell tumor	Any	None typical	Tubular architecture	Rare; usually benign
Lymphoma	Diffuse large B-cell (most common)	>60	None typical	Lymphoid infiltrate between seminiferous tubules	Most common testicular malignancy in men over 60; bilateral in up to 50% of cases

3. Diagnostic Workup

Test	Role	Key Findings
Scrotal ultrasound	Best initial test	Hypoechoic intratesticular mass; distinguishes solid (tumor) from cystic (hydrocele, spermatocele)
Serum tumor markers (AFP, beta-hCG, LDH)	Pre-operative and post-operative staging and classification	AFP: yolk sac, embryonal; beta-hCG: choriocarcinoma, some seminoma; LDH: tumor burden
Radical inguinal orchiectomy	Diagnostic and therapeutic (gold standard)	Provides histologic diagnosis and local tumor control simultaneously
CT abdomen and pelvis	Staging	Retroperitoneal lymphadenopathy (para-aortic nodes)
CT chest or chest X-ray	Staging	Pulmonary metastases
CT or MRI brain	If choriocarcinoma is suspected or neurologic symptoms are present	Hemorrhagic brain metastases

The workup for a suspected testicular tumor follows a disciplined sequence. Any young man presenting with a painless testicular mass should undergo scrotal ultrasound as the best initial test. Ultrasound carries near-100% sensitivity for detecting intratesticular masses and reliably distinguishes solid tumors from benign cystic lesions such as hydroceles and spermatoceles. A solid, hypoechoic intratesticular lesion on ultrasound should be treated as malignant until proven otherwise.

Before proceeding to surgery, serum tumor markers must be drawn. This step is critical and often tested: markers must be obtained before orchiectomy because they serve as the baseline for post-operative surveillance. Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (beta-hCG), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) form the standard panel. The pattern of marker elevation helps predict histology and directly influences treatment decisions.

The most important rule in testicular tumor diagnosis is: never perform a trans-scrotal biopsy, fine needle aspiration, or trans-scrotal orchiectomy. These approaches violate the normal lymphatic drainage pathway of the testis. The testis drains to the retroperitoneal para-aortic lymph nodes via the spermatic cord. A trans-scrotal approach can seed tumor cells into the scrotal skin and redirect lymphatic drainage to the inguinal nodes, thereby upstaging the disease and complicating treatment.

The definitive diagnostic procedure is radical inguinal orchiectomy through an inguinal incision. The spermatic cord is clamped at the internal inguinal ring before the testis is delivered, providing both histologic diagnosis and en bloc tumor removal. Following orchiectomy, staging is completed with CT of the abdomen, pelvis, and chest to evaluate for retroperitoneal lymphadenopathy and pulmonary metastases.

Tumor Marker Interpretation

Marker	Elevated In	Never Elevated In
AFP	Yolk sac tumor, embryonal carcinoma, mixed GCT	Pure seminoma, pure choriocarcinoma
Beta-hCG	Choriocarcinoma (always), seminoma (10 to 15%), embryonal carcinoma	Can be elevated in virtually any GCT type
LDH	Correlates with tumor burden across all types	Not type-discriminating

The cardinal rule: if AFP is elevated, the tumor is not a pure seminoma, regardless of what the histology report states. In such cases, the tumor must be managed as a non-seminomatous GCT because the elevated AFP indicates the presence of non-seminomatous elements that the pathologist may have missed on sampling.

Staging

Stage	Description
Stage I	Tumor confined to the testis (no lymph node or distant metastasis)
Stage II	Retroperitoneal lymph node involvement (IIA: nodes $\leq$ 2 cm; IIB: 2 to 5 cm; IIC: > 5 cm)
Stage III	Distant metastases (supradiaphragmatic lymph nodes, pulmonary, visceral)

Post-orchiectomy serum marker levels (S0 through S3) are factored into the overall staging and risk classification, which determines the intensity of adjuvant therapy.

4. Management and Treatment

Stage	Seminoma	Non-Seminomatous GCT (NSGCT)
I	Orchiectomy + surveillance (preferred), OR adjuvant radiation (20 to 25 Gy to para-aortic field), OR single-dose carboplatin (AUC 7)	Orchiectomy + surveillance (low risk), OR RPLND, OR 1 to 2 cycles of BEP (high risk, i.e., lymphovascular invasion present)
II	Low volume (IIA/IIB): radiation (30 to 36 Gy); Bulky (IIC): chemotherapy (BEP x 3 to 4 cycles)	Chemotherapy (BEP x 3 to 4 cycles); post-chemo RPLND if residual mass present
III	Chemotherapy (BEP x 3 to 4 cycles, or EP x 4 if bleomycin contraindicated)	Chemotherapy (BEP x 3 to 4 cycles); post-chemo RPLND for residual mass

All testicular tumors begin with radical inguinal orchiectomy. This is both the first therapeutic and diagnostic step. Beyond orchiectomy, the treatment pathway diverges based on histology (seminoma vs. NSGCT) and stage.

Seminoma management capitalizes on this tumor's extraordinary sensitivity to both radiation and chemotherapy. For Stage I seminoma, active surveillance is increasingly preferred because the relapse rate is only 15 to 20%, and salvage therapy at relapse is highly effective with cure rates exceeding 99%. Alternatives include adjuvant radiation to the para-aortic lymph node field (20 to 25 Gy in 10 fractions) or a single dose of carboplatin at an AUC of 7. For Stage II disease with low-volume retroperitoneal lymphadenopathy (nodes less than 5 cm), radiation remains effective at doses of 30 to 36 Gy. Bulky Stage II and all Stage III seminoma require platinum-based combination chemotherapy.

NSGCT management relies on chemotherapy and surgery rather than radiation, because NSGCTs are not radiosensitive. For Stage I NSGCT, the choice between surveillance, primary RPLND, and adjuvant chemotherapy depends on the presence of lymphovascular invasion (LVI), which is the strongest predictor of occult metastatic disease. Patients with LVI are considered high risk and typically receive 1 to 2 cycles of BEP. For Stage II and III NSGCT, the standard is 3 to 4 cycles of BEP chemotherapy followed by surgical resection (RPLND) of any residual retroperitoneal mass. Residual masses after chemotherapy in NSGCT may contain viable tumor, mature teratoma (which is chemo-resistant), or necrosis and fibrosis. Only surgical resection can distinguish between these possibilities.

Note: For seminoma, residual masses after chemotherapy that are < 3 cm are observed rather than resected. Masses $\geq$ 3 cm may undergo PET/CT to assess for viable tumor before deciding on resection or observation.

BEP Regimen

Drug	Dose	Schedule
Bleomycin	30 units IV	Days 1, 8, and 15 of each 21-day cycle
Etoposide	100 mg/m² IV	Days 1 through 5 of each 21-day cycle
Cisplatin	20 mg/m² IV	Days 1 through 5 of each 21-day cycle

Cycles repeat every 21 days for 3 cycles (good prognosis) or 4 cycles (intermediate/poor prognosis).

Key Drug Toxicities and Contraindications

The primary concern with bleomycin is pulmonary toxicity (pulmonary fibrosis), which is cumulative and can be fatal. Baseline and serial pulmonary function tests (DLCO) are required during treatment. Risk factors for bleomycin lung toxicity include age over 40, cumulative dose exceeding 400 units, renal impairment, and concurrent or prior thoracic radiation. If bleomycin is contraindicated (pre-existing lung disease or declining DLCO), the regimen is changed to EP (etoposide and cisplatin) for 4 cycles instead of BEP for 3 cycles.

Cisplatin can cause nephrotoxicity, ototoxicity (high-frequency hearing loss), and peripheral neuropathy. Aggressive IV hydration is required during cisplatin administration to reduce renal injury.

Etoposide carries a small but real risk of secondary leukemia (therapy-related acute myeloid leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome), typically occurring years after treatment.

Surgical Complications

The most tested surgical complication of retroperitoneal lymph node dissection (RPLND) is retrograde ejaculation, resulting from damage to the sympathetic nerve fibers (hypogastric plexus) in the retroperitoneum. Nerve-sparing surgical techniques reduce but do not eliminate this risk. Sperm banking should be offered to all patients before treatment.

Post-Treatment Surveillance

Surveillance after treatment includes serial tumor markers (AFP, beta-hCG, LDH), imaging (CT or X-ray as appropriate), and physical examination at defined intervals. Markers should normalize after successful treatment according to their expected half-lives ($t_{1/2}$ of AFP is 5 to 7 days; $t_{1/2}$ of beta-hCG is 24 to 36 hours). A rising marker after orchiectomy or chemotherapy indicates residual or recurrent disease even if imaging appears normal, and should prompt further treatment.

5. Differential Diagnosis and Distractors

Differential	Why It Is Similar	Key Discriminator
Epididymitis / orchitis	Scrotal swelling and discomfort in a young male	Painful, fever, pyuria, positive Prehn sign (relief with testicular elevation); tenderness is in the epididymis, not the body of the testis; ultrasound shows increased blood flow
Testicular torsion	Acute scrotal pain in a young male (adolescent)	Sudden onset of severe pain, absent cremasteric reflex, "high-riding" testis with horizontal lie; ultrasound shows decreased or absent blood flow; surgical emergency within 6 hours
Hydrocele	Painless scrotal swelling	Transilluminates (light passes through fluid); ultrasound shows anechoic fluid surrounding the testis with no solid mass
Varicocele	Scrotal fullness, often left-sided, in a young male	"Bag of worms" feel on palpation; disappears when supine, worsens with Valsalva; ultrasound shows dilated pampiniform plexus veins >3 mm
Spermatocele	Painless cystic scrotal mass	Located superior and posterior to the testis (arising from the epididymal head); transilluminates; contains sperm on aspiration
Inguinal hernia	Scrotal or inguinal mass in a young male	Reducible; examiner can "get above" the mass on palpation; increases with Valsalva; bowel sounds may be auscultated within the scrotum
Testicular lymphoma	Painless testicular mass in an older male	Age over 60; bilateral involvement in up to 50%; treat as lymphoma (systemic chemotherapy, e.g., R-CHOP), not as a germ cell tumor

6. Traps and High-Yield Pearls

The single most commonly tested concept in testicular tumor questions is the prohibition against trans-scrotal biopsy. Vignettes will describe a young man with a painless testicular mass confirmed on ultrasound, then offer answer choices that include "trans-scrotal biopsy," "FNA of the mass," or "trans-scrotal orchiectomy." All of these are incorrect. The correct answer is always radical inguinal orchiectomy.

The second major trap involves AFP and seminoma. A vignette may describe a tumor that is histologically pure seminoma but with an elevated AFP. Students who select "treat as seminoma with radiation" will miss the question. The rule is absolute: elevated AFP means the tumor must be managed as a non-seminomatous GCT, because the AFP indicates occult non-seminomatous elements that the pathologist may have missed on sampling.

Another frequent pitfall is confusing the most common testicular tumor by age group. In adults aged 15 to 35, seminoma is the most common single histologic type. In children under 3 years, yolk sac tumor is the most common. In men over 60, lymphoma (not a germ cell tumor at all) is the most common testicular malignancy. Exam writers exploit these distinctions by manipulating the patient's age in the vignette stem.

Students also lose points by forgetting that teratoma in post-pubertal adults is malignant and chemo-resistant. Unlike prepubertal teratoma (which is benign), adult teratoma can grow, invade surrounding structures, and even undergo malignant transformation into sarcoma or carcinoma. It does not respond to chemotherapy and must be resected surgically. This is a favorite tested concept in questions about post-chemotherapy residual masses: if a residual mass remains after BEP in an NSGCT patient, the next step is RPLND, not more chemotherapy.

Be alert for the choriocarcinoma presentation trap. Because choriocarcinoma spreads hematogenously and produces hemorrhagic metastases, patients may present with hemoptysis, stroke-like neurologic symptoms, or an acute abdomen from hemorrhagic liver metastases. The primary testicular mass may be very small or even "burned out" (regressed). A young man with hemorrhagic lung lesions and a markedly elevated beta-hCG should trigger recognition of choriocarcinoma, even if the testes appear clinically normal on physical examination.

Finally, remember the marker half-life concept. After orchiectomy, AFP should decline with a $t_{1/2}$ of 5 to 7 days and beta-hCG with a $t_{1/2}$ of 24 to 36 hours. If markers fail to normalize at the expected rate ("plateau" or rise), this indicates persistent disease regardless of negative imaging, and further treatment is warranted. The exam may test this by showing post-operative marker values that are declining but more slowly than expected, asking you to recognize incomplete tumor clearance.

The core competency being tested across all testicular tumor questions is the ability to: (1) recognize a painless testicular mass as cancer until proven otherwise, (2) sequence the workup correctly (ultrasound first, markers before surgery, inguinal approach only), (3) interpret tumor markers to classify the tumor and guide therapy, and (4) match the treatment to the histologic subtype and stage.

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