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Summary Table

Category	Details
Risk Factors	Age > 60, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, atrial fibrillation, carotid artery stenosis, smoking, prior stroke or TIA, patent foramen ovale (in younger patients), hypercoagulable states
Etiology	Thromboembolism from carotid atherosclerosis or cardioembolism (atrial fibrillation), small vessel lipohyalinosis, arterial dissection
Patient Presentation	Sudden-onset focal neurological deficit that resolves completely, typically within minutes to 1 hour. No persistent deficits at time of evaluation.
Classic Physical Exam	Often normal on arrival (deficits have resolved). May find: carotid bruit, irregularly irregular pulse (atrial fibrillation), Hollenhorst plaque on fundoscopy (yellow, refractile cholesterol embolus at retinal artery bifurcation)
Key Diagnostic Results	Non-contrast CT head: normal (rules out hemorrhage). MRI with DWI: no acute infarct (distinguishes TIA from stroke). Carotid duplex or CT angiography to evaluate for stenosis. ECG to screen for atrial fibrillation.
Management	Aspirin immediately. Dual antiplatelet therapy (aspirin + clopidogrel) for 21 days if high-risk (ABCD2 score of 4 or higher). Statin therapy. Carotid endarterectomy if ipsilateral stenosis is 70 to 99%. Anticoagulation if atrial fibrillation is detected.
Keywords	"Symptoms resolved completely," "curtain coming down over one eye" (amaurosis fugax), "carotid bruit," "deficits lasting minutes," "normal CT head," "DWI-negative MRI"

1. Pathophysiology

TIA is defined as a transient episode of neurological dysfunction caused by focal brain, spinal cord, or retinal ischemia, without evidence of acute infarction. The modern understanding has shifted from the old time-based definition (symptoms lasting less than 24 hours) to a tissue-based definition: a TIA is present when the ischemic insult does not produce permanent tissue damage on imaging, regardless of symptom duration.

The mechanism begins with a transient interruption of blood flow to a region of the brain. The most common source is thromboembolism from an atherosclerotic plaque in the internal carotid artery. A plaque ruptures, a platelet-rich thrombus forms on its surface, and a fragment breaks off and travels distally to occlude a cerebral vessel. Because the embolus is small and friable, it lyses or fragments quickly, restoring flow before irreversible infarction occurs. This is why symptoms resolve completely.

The second most frequent mechanism is cardioembolism, principally from atrial fibrillation. The fibrillating left atrium generates stasis, which promotes thrombus formation (especially in the left atrial appendage). Fragments can embolize to the cerebral circulation. This mechanism is important because it changes management entirely: these patients need anticoagulation, not antiplatelet therapy.

In the anterior (carotid) circulation, emboli can lodge in the ophthalmic artery, producing amaurosis fugax, which is transient painless monocular vision loss classically described as a curtain descending over one eye. This is a TIA equivalent and warrants the same urgent workup. On fundoscopy, you may see a Hollenhorst plaque, a yellow, refractile cholesterol crystal lodged at a retinal artery bifurcation, which is essentially physical evidence that emboli are originating from the carotid system.

In the posterior (vertebrobasilar) circulation, the ischemia affects the brainstem, cerebellum, or occipital lobes. This produces symptoms such as vertigo, diplopia, dysarthria, bilateral motor or sensory deficits, and ataxia. These presentations are harder to recognize on exams because they overlap with benign conditions like benign paroxysmal positional vertigo.

The critical clinical significance of TIA lies in its role as a warning event. The risk of subsequent completed stroke is highest in the first 48 to 72 hours following a TIA and remains elevated for weeks. This is why all TIA patients require emergent workup and immediate secondary prevention, not outpatient follow-up.

2. Classification and Clinical Manifestation

Vascular Territory	Vessels Involved	Clinical Manifestations
Anterior Circulation (Carotid)	Internal carotid artery, middle cerebral artery, anterior cerebral artery	Unilateral motor weakness (face, arm, leg), unilateral sensory loss, aphasia (dominant hemisphere), neglect (non-dominant hemisphere), amaurosis fugax (monocular vision loss)
Posterior Circulation (Vertebrobasilar)	Vertebral arteries, basilar artery, posterior cerebral artery	Vertigo, diplopia, dysarthria, dysphagia, ataxia, bilateral motor or sensory deficits, homonymous hemianopia, drop attacks
Retinal TIA (Amaurosis Fugax)	Ophthalmic artery, central retinal artery	Transient painless monocular vision loss ("curtain coming down"), Hollenhorst plaque on fundoscopy

ABCD2 Risk Stratification Score:

Parameter	Criteria	Points
Age	60 years or older	1
Blood pressure	Systolic 140 mmHg or higher, or diastolic 90 mmHg or higher	1
Clinical features	Unilateral weakness	2
	Speech disturbance without weakness	1
Duration	60 minutes or longer	2
	10 to 59 minutes	1
Diabetes	Present	1

Total Score	Risk Category	2-Day Stroke Risk
0 to 3	Low risk	Approximately 1%
4 to 5	Moderate risk	Approximately 4%
6 to 7	High risk	Approximately 8%

An important caveat: the ABCD2 score does not capture high-risk features such as atrial fibrillation, carotid stenosis, or crescendo TIA. A patient can score low but still have a 70% carotid stenosis, which constitutes a vascular emergency. Current guidelines therefore emphasize that all suspected TIA patients need urgent assessment within 24 hours with vascular imaging and cardiac monitoring, regardless of ABCD2 score.

3. Diagnostic Workup

Test	Role	Key Finding
Non-contrast CT head	Best initial test	Normal (rules out hemorrhagic stroke and structural lesions)
MRI brain with DWI	Most accurate test	No restricted diffusion (DWI-negative confirms TIA; DWI-positive reclassifies the event as an ischemic stroke)
Carotid duplex ultrasound	Vascular screening	Identifies degree of internal carotid artery stenosis; determines candidacy for endarterectomy
CT angiography (head/neck)	Vascular evaluation	Visualizes extracranial and intracranial stenosis, dissection, or occlusion
ECG	Cardiac rhythm screening	Atrial fibrillation detection (changes management to anticoagulation)
Echocardiography	Cardiac source evaluation	Evaluates for intracardiac thrombus, valvular disease, patent foramen ovale
Continuous cardiac monitoring	Extended rhythm assessment	Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation not captured on a single ECG
Labs	Baseline metabolic assessment	Glucose (hypoglycemia mimic), CBC, BMP, coagulation studies, lipid panel, HbA1c

The first test in any patient presenting with acute focal neurological deficits is a non-contrast CT of the head. The purpose is not to diagnose TIA; rather, it is to rule out hemorrhagic stroke, which presents identically but requires entirely different management. In a true TIA, the CT will be normal. This "normal CT" finding is itself a tested concept: test writers expect you to know that a normal CT in the setting of resolved focal deficits points toward TIA.

The most accurate test is MRI with diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI). DWI detects acute ischemic injury within minutes of onset. If DWI shows restricted diffusion (a bright signal on DWI with a corresponding dark signal on the ADC map), the event is reclassified as an ischemic stroke, even if symptoms have fully resolved. A DWI-negative study in a patient whose deficits have resolved confirms the tissue-based diagnosis of TIA. This distinction carries prognostic weight: a DWI-positive lesion after TIA is associated with approximately a fivefold higher 90-day stroke risk.

Vascular imaging is mandatory and urgent. Carotid duplex ultrasound is typically the initial screening tool for anterior circulation TIA. It identifies the degree of internal carotid artery stenosis using velocity criteria. CT angiography of the head and neck provides a comprehensive view of both extracranial and intracranial vasculature and is often performed alongside the initial CT head in the emergency setting.

Cardiac evaluation is the next priority. A 12-lead ECG should be obtained immediately to screen for atrial fibrillation. If the initial ECG is normal, continuous cardiac monitoring (telemetry or Holter monitor) is indicated to detect paroxysmal atrial fibrillation, which may not be present at the time of evaluation. Echocardiography evaluates for intracardiac thrombus, valvular vegetations, and structural abnormalities such as patent foramen ovale, particularly in younger patients without traditional risk factors.

Laboratory studies serve a supporting role. Glucose must be checked immediately because hypoglycemia is a common TIA mimic and can produce focal neurological deficits. A complete metabolic panel, CBC, coagulation studies, lipid panel, and HbA1c complete the baseline evaluation and guide long-term risk factor management.

4. Management and Treatment

Phase	Intervention	Details
Immediate	Aspirin	160 to 325 mg loading dose, then 81 mg daily
Acute (high-risk TIA)	Dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT)	Aspirin + clopidogrel (300 mg loading dose, then 75 mg daily) for 21 days, initiated within 24 hours
After 21 days DAPT	Antiplatelet monotherapy	Clopidogrel 75 mg daily or aspirin 81 mg daily indefinitely
If atrial fibrillation detected	Anticoagulation	Direct oral anticoagulant (apixaban, rivaroxaban) or warfarin; discontinue antiplatelet therapy
Carotid stenosis 70 to 99%	Carotid endarterectomy (CEA)	Perform within 2 weeks of the index TIA; surgical morbidity/mortality must be less than 6%
Carotid stenosis 50 to 69%	CEA considered	Moderate benefit; surgery considered based on patient-level factors (sex, comorbidities, plaque characteristics)
Carotid stenosis less than 50%	Medical management only	No benefit from surgery
Risk factor modification	Statin, antihypertensive, glycemic control	High-intensity statin (atorvastatin 40 to 80 mg). Blood pressure target below 130/80 mmHg. HbA1c optimization. Smoking cessation.

Acute Stabilization. The first step in management is aspirin, given as a loading dose of 160 to 325 mg. This should not be delayed.

For patients classified as high-risk (ABCD2 score of 4 or higher, or minor noncardioembolic ischemic stroke with NIHSS of 3 or less), current AHA/ASA guidelines recommend dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) with aspirin plus clopidogrel. Based on the CHANCE and POINT trials, DAPT should ideally be initiated within 12 to 24 hours of symptom onset and continued for 21 days, followed by antiplatelet monotherapy. A pooled analysis of these two trials demonstrated that the benefit of DAPT was confined to the first 21 days. Beyond 21 days, the bleeding risk increases without additional stroke prevention benefit.

The clopidogrel loading dose is 300 mg on day one, followed by 75 mg daily. An alternative regimen for patients who carry CYP2C19 loss-of-function alleles (who are poor clopidogrel metabolizers) is aspirin plus ticagrelor, based on the CHANCE-2 trial. This is a more nuanced point but is worth knowing: if a vignette mentions CYP2C19 polymorphism or "clopidogrel resistance," ticagrelor is the alternative.

Anticoagulation replaces antiplatelet therapy entirely when atrial fibrillation is identified as the embolic source. Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) such as apixaban or rivaroxaban are preferred over warfarin due to their favorable safety profile and fixed dosing. This is a critical management fork: the question is testing whether you can identify the mechanism (cardioembolic vs. atherothrombotic) and select the correct therapy.

Carotid Endarterectomy (CEA) is indicated for patients with symptomatic carotid stenosis of 70 to 99% by NASCET criteria, provided the surgical complication rate is less than 6%. The NASCET trial demonstrated that the 2-year cumulative ipsilateral stroke risk was 26% with medical therapy alone versus 9% with CEA, yielding an absolute risk reduction of 17%. The benefit is greatest when surgery is performed within 2 weeks of the index event and declines rapidly with delay. For moderate stenosis of 50 to 69%, CEA reduces the 5-year risk of death or stroke by 29%, providing moderate benefit. Below 50% stenosis, surgery offers no benefit.

Long-Term Secondary Prevention includes high-intensity statin therapy (atorvastatin 40 to 80 mg daily), blood pressure management (target below 130/80 mmHg), glycemic control for diabetic patients, and smoking cessation counseling. These risk factor modifications are not optional additions; they form the backbone of recurrent stroke prevention.

Contraindications and Special Considerations:

DAPT is contraindicated in cardioembolic TIA (from atrial fibrillation); these patients need anticoagulation, not dual antiplatelets.
DAPT should not be continued beyond 90 days due to increased intracranial hemorrhage and major bleeding risk.
In patients with a history of peptic ulcer disease, proton pump inhibitor co-therapy should be considered when starting DAPT.
Near-occlusion of the carotid artery (subtotal stenosis with distal collapse) does not benefit from CEA.

5. Differential Diagnosis and Distractors

Differential	Why It Is Similar	Key Discriminator
Ischemic stroke	Identical presentation with acute focal neurological deficits	Deficits persist beyond the acute period. MRI DWI shows restricted diffusion (acute infarction). In TIA, deficits resolve completely and DWI is negative.
Hypoglycemia	Can produce focal neurological deficits (hemiparesis, aphasia) that mimic stroke or TIA	Check fingerstick glucose. Symptoms resolve with glucose correction. Look for history of diabetes or insulin use. No vascular distribution pattern.
Migraine with aura (complex migraine)	Can cause transient visual changes, unilateral numbness, or even aphasia	Symptoms develop gradually over minutes (the "march" of aura) and are often followed by headache. TIA symptoms are sudden onset and maximal at onset. Aura tends to include positive phenomena (scintillating scotoma, tingling) rather than purely negative deficits.
Seizure with Todd paralysis	Post-ictal focal weakness or aphasia that gradually resolves, mimicking a TIA	Look for a witnessed seizure or signs of convulsive activity (tongue bite, incontinence, confusion). Todd paralysis follows a seizure; TIA has no preceding convulsive episode. EEG may show epileptiform discharges.
Multiple sclerosis	Transient neurological deficits that resolve (relapsing-remitting pattern)	Patient is typically a younger woman. Deficits evolve over days to weeks, not seconds to minutes. MRI shows periventricular white matter lesions with different temporal stages ("dissemination in time and space").
Brain tumor	Can cause focal neurological deficits	Symptoms are progressive over weeks to months, not sudden. Often accompanied by headache worse in the morning, papilledema, and signs of elevated intracranial pressure. Imaging shows a mass lesion.
Conversion disorder (functional neurological symptom disorder)	Sudden onset neurological deficit with complete resolution	Deficits do not follow a vascular distribution. Exam findings are inconsistent (e.g., Hoover sign, give-way weakness). Neuroimaging and workup are completely normal. History of psychological stressor may be present.

6. Traps and High-Yield Pearls

The most common way students get TIA questions wrong involves confusing TIA with a completed stroke. If the vignette describes a patient whose focal neurological deficits have completely resolved and whose MRI DWI shows no restricted diffusion, the answer is TIA, not stroke, even if the symptoms lasted several hours. The modern tissue-based definition means that the absence of infarction on DWI, not the duration of symptoms, is what defines the event.

A second frequent error is failing to identify the management fork between antiplatelet therapy and anticoagulation. Test writers build vignettes where the workup reveals atrial fibrillation, and the student reflexively chooses aspirin or DAPT. If the mechanism is cardioembolic, the answer is always anticoagulation. Read the vignette for an "irregularly irregular rhythm" or "ECG showing absent P waves with irregularly spaced QRS complexes." These are the signals that change your treatment choice.

Another trap involves carotid endarterectomy candidacy. The vignette will provide an imaging result showing carotid stenosis, and the student must know the thresholds: 70 to 99% stenosis warrants CEA; 50 to 69% may benefit; below 50% receives medical therapy only. A common distractor is offering CEA for a patient with 40% stenosis, which is incorrect.

Be vigilant for the amaurosis fugax vignette: a patient describing a "curtain" or "shade" descending over one eye, with symptoms lasting minutes and resolving completely. This is a retinal TIA and requires the same urgent carotid workup and secondary prevention. The finding of a Hollenhorst plaque on fundoscopic exam clinches the embolic etiology.

Finally, students sometimes overlook hypoglycemia as a TIA mimic. If the vignette includes a diabetic patient on insulin with focal deficits that resolve, always check the glucose before committing to a TIA diagnosis. This is a classic "next best step" question where the answer is "check fingerstick glucose" rather than ordering an MRI or starting aspirin.

The core competency being tested in TIA questions is your ability to (1) recognize transient focal neurological deficits as a vascular emergency despite complete resolution, (2) correctly sequence the diagnostic workup from initial CT to DWI to vascular imaging and cardiac evaluation, and (3) match the appropriate treatment strategy to the underlying mechanism.

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