2d:I[856015,["/_next/static/immutable/chunks/1xzisbplk9czp.js","/_next/static/immutable/chunks/3j2i1faptc_-9.js","/_next/static/immutable/chunks/0fma7nlq6immz.js","/_next/static/immutable/chunks/08tq8rmv423j5.js","/_next/static/immutable/chunks/1chr5wkk3j58k.js","/_next/static/immutable/chunks/37kmmh_zm4dov.js","/_next/static/immutable/chunks/311zvdjfxff-f.js","/_next/static/immutable/chunks/1a_hqhrsle_n_.js"],"default"] 2e:T52ea,

Summary Table

Category	Detail
Risk Factors	Fetal chromosomal abnormalities (Turner syndrome 45,X is the strongest association), trisomy 21, trisomy 18, Noonan syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome
Etiology	Congenital malformation of the lymphatic system due to failure of lymphatic sacs to connect with the venous drainage system
Patient Presentation	Soft, painless, progressively enlarging neck mass discovered prenatally on ultrasound or at birth; may cause respiratory distress or feeding difficulty if large
Classic Physical Exam	Soft, compressible, non-tender mass in the posterior triangle of the neck that brilliantly transilluminates; no skin color change unless complicated by infection or hemorrhage
Key Diagnostic Results	Prenatal ultrasound showing septated or non-septated cystic mass in the posterior neck; postnatal MRI delineating full extent; karyotyping reveals chromosomal abnormality in many cases
Management	Observation for small asymptomatic lesions; surgical excision is definitive; sclerotherapy (with OK-432 or doxycycline) for unresectable or recurrent lesions; EXIT procedure if airway compromise is anticipated at delivery
Keywords	"Transilluminant neck mass," "posterior triangle," "septated cystic mass on prenatal ultrasound," "Turner syndrome," "nuchal translucency," "lymphatic malformation"

1. Pathophysiology

Cystic hygroma is a congenital lymphatic malformation that arises from a developmental failure in the embryonic lymphatic system. During normal embryogenesis, primitive lymphatic sacs bud off from the venous system and eventually reconnect to establish proper lymphatic drainage. In cystic hygroma, the jugular lymphatic sacs fail to establish communication with the internal jugular vein. This sequestration causes lymphatic fluid to accumulate within dilated, endothelium-lined cystic spaces, forming the characteristic multiloculated or unilocular fluid-filled mass.

The posterior triangle of the neck is the most common location because the jugular lymphatic sacs are anatomically situated in this region. However, these lesions can occur anywhere along the lymphatic chain, including the axilla, mediastinum, groin, and retroperitoneum. The reason the mass transilluminates is that it contains clear, protein-rich lymphatic fluid without solid tissue components, allowing light to pass through freely. This is a key physical exam finding that separates it from solid tumors like teratomas or hemangiomas.

The strong association with Turner syndrome (45,X) is explained by the fact that lymphatic hypoplasia is an intrinsic feature of monosomy X. These fetuses have generalized lymphatic dysfunction, leading to fluid accumulation. When a cystic hygroma is detected on prenatal ultrasound, it often presents alongside hydrops fetalis (generalized subcutaneous edema, ascites, pleural and pericardial effusions), which reflects widespread failure of lymphatic return. The combination of a large cystic hygroma with hydrops carries a very poor prognosis and is frequently associated with fetal demise or termination.

From a clinical standpoint, the mass itself is benign and does not undergo malignant transformation. The morbidity comes from mass effect: large lesions can compress the airway, esophagus, or neurovascular structures, leading to respiratory distress, feeding difficulty, or cranial nerve deficits.

2. Classification and Clinical Manifestation

Classification by Morphology

Type	Description	Clinical Significance
Macrocystic	Cysts > 2 cm in diameter; few, large, well-defined fluid-filled spaces	More amenable to sclerotherapy; better treatment response
Microcystic	Cysts < 2 cm; numerous small cystic spaces with intervening solid tissue	Harder to treat; higher recurrence after surgery; poor response to sclerotherapy
Mixed	Combination of macrocystic and microcystic components	Treatment approach depends on dominant component

Classification by Location

Location	Frequency	Notes
Posterior cervical triangle	~75% of cases	Most common; classic exam presentation
Axilla	~20%	Second most common
Mediastinum, retroperitoneum, groin	~5%	Rare but can present with organ compression

Clinical Manifestation by Timing of Presentation

Timing	Presentation
Prenatal (most testable)	Septated cystic mass in the nuchal region on second-trimester ultrasound; may be associated with increased nuchal translucency in the first trimester; concurrent hydrops fetalis suggests chromosomal abnormality
At birth	Soft, painless, transilluminant neck mass; may cause immediate airway compromise if large
Infancy / early childhood	Gradual enlargement of a previously unnoticed mass; sudden increase in size after upper respiratory infection (hemorrhage or infection within the cyst)

A key teaching point: increased nuchal translucency (> 3 mm) on first-trimester screening is not the same as a cystic hygroma, but both fall on a spectrum of lymphatic abnormality. When the nuchal fluid collection is septated and extends along the length of the fetus, it is more appropriately called a cystic hygroma and carries a much higher risk of aneuploidy than simple nuchal translucency.

3. Diagnostic Workup

Test	Role	Key Findings
Prenatal ultrasound	Best initial test (prenatal setting)	Septated or non-septated cystic mass in the posterior nuchal region; may show hydrops fetalis
Postnatal ultrasound	Best initial test (postnatal setting)	Confirms cystic nature; distinguishes from solid masses; demonstrates transonic, multiloculated fluid
MRI	Most accurate test for anatomical delineation	Defines full extent of lesion, relationship to airway and neurovascular structures; essential for surgical planning
Karyotyping / chromosomal microarray	Essential adjunct	Identifies Turner syndrome (45,X), trisomy 21, trisomy 18, or other aneuploidies
CT scan	Alternative to MRI	Used when MRI is unavailable; good for bony involvement but inferior soft tissue contrast
Fine needle aspiration	Rarely needed	Yields straw-colored, protein-rich lymphatic fluid; performed only when diagnosis is uncertain

Prenatal ultrasound is typically the first modality that identifies the lesion. On routine second-trimester anatomy scan, the sonographer will see a thin-walled, fluid-filled, often septated mass arising from the posterior aspect of the fetal neck. The test-writer wants you to recognize that this finding should immediately trigger two responses: first, evaluate the fetus for signs of hydrops fetalis (skin edema, ascites, pleural effusion, pericardial effusion); second, offer amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling for karyotyping. The chromosomal analysis is not optional when a cystic hygroma is found prenatally because the rate of aneuploidy ranges from 50% to 70%.

In the postnatal setting, ultrasound remains the best initial test. It confirms that the mass is cystic rather than solid, which is the most important first distinction. The characteristic finding is a multiloculated, anechoic or hypoechoic mass that compresses easily under the transducer. Doppler evaluation shows no internal vascularity, helping to differentiate from vascular malformations like hemangiomas.

MRI is the gold standard for preoperative planning. It provides superior soft tissue contrast and can map the relationship of the lesion to the airway, great vessels, and cranial nerves. T2-weighted sequences show the cystic spaces as high-signal intensity, and any hemorrhagic component will show variable signal on T1. For exam purposes, the step from ultrasound to MRI is the expected sequence before any intervention.

4. Management and Treatment

Clinical Scenario	Management	Details
Small, asymptomatic lesion	Observation	Serial ultrasound monitoring; some lesions (particularly small macrocystic types) may partially regress
Symptomatic or enlarging lesion	Surgical excision	Definitive treatment; goal is complete excision while preserving neurovascular structures
Unresectable or recurrent	Sclerotherapy	Intralesional injection of OK-432 (picibanil), doxycycline, bleomycin, or ethanol; best results in macrocystic lesions
Prenatal with airway compromise	EXIT procedure (Ex Utero Intrapartum Treatment)	Secures the fetal airway while still on placental circulation during a controlled cesarean delivery
Acute enlargement (infection/hemorrhage)	Antibiotics and drainage	Incision and drainage or aspiration; definitive surgery delayed until inflammation resolves

Observation is appropriate for small, incidentally discovered, asymptomatic cystic hygromas. Spontaneous regression is uncommon but documented, particularly in isolated macrocystic lesions without chromosomal abnormality. Serial ultrasound every 3 to 6 months monitors for growth.

Surgical excision is the definitive treatment and is indicated when the lesion causes symptoms (airway compromise, feeding difficulty, cosmetic deformity) or is progressively enlarging. The goal is complete excision, but this can be challenging because the cystic spaces often infiltrate between vital structures (branches of the facial nerve, internal jugular vein, vagus nerve). Incomplete excision carries a recurrence rate of approximately 15% to 50%, which is why meticulous dissection with intraoperative nerve monitoring is preferred. There is no standardized chemotherapy or radiation role because the lesion is benign.

Sclerotherapy has become a first-line alternative for macrocystic lesions, particularly when surgical risk is high. OK-432 (picibanil), a lyophilized preparation of Group A Streptococcus, is the most studied sclerosant. It works by inducing a local inflammatory reaction within the cyst wall, leading to fibrosis and shrinkage. A typical protocol involves ultrasound-guided aspiration of cyst fluid followed by injection of OK-432, with reassessment in 6 to 8 weeks. Multiple sessions may be required. Doxycycline and bleomycin are alternatives when OK-432 is unavailable. Microcystic lesions respond poorly to sclerotherapy because the small cyst size limits adequate distribution of the agent.

The EXIT procedure deserves attention because it is a high-yield concept. When prenatal imaging reveals a large cystic hygroma that distorts or compresses the fetal airway, a planned EXIT procedure allows the surgical team to intubate the fetus or establish a surgical airway while the baby remains connected to the placenta via the umbilical cord. This provides oxygenation during what would otherwise be a cannot-intubate, cannot-ventilate emergency.

Contraindications and special considerations: sclerotherapy with bleomycin carries a risk of pulmonary fibrosis with cumulative doses (lifetime limit of 400 units); OK-432 is contraindicated in patients with penicillin allergy because the preparation contains trace penicillin. Surgical excision near the parotid or submandibular region risks facial nerve injury.

5. Differential Diagnosis and Distractors

Differential Diagnosis	Why It Looks Similar	Key Discriminator
Branchial cleft cyst	Lateral neck mass in a young patient; cystic on ultrasound	Located anterior to the sternocleidomastoid (second branchial cleft, most common); does NOT transilluminate as brilliantly; usually presents in older children or young adults, not at birth
Thyroglossal duct cyst	Midline neck mass in a child; cystic	Located at the midline, moves upward with swallowing and tongue protrusion; never in the posterior triangle
Infantile hemangioma	Soft neck mass in an infant; can be large	Red or bluish skin discoloration; grows rapidly in the first year then involutes; solid on ultrasound with high vascularity on Doppler; does NOT transilluminate
Cervical teratoma	Large neck mass at birth; can cause airway compromise	Contains mixed solid and cystic components with calcifications on imaging; does not transilluminate; may have elevated alpha-fetoprotein
Dermoid cyst	Midline or lateral cystic neck mass in a child	Well-circumscribed, does not transilluminate; contains echogenic material (fat, hair, keratin) on ultrasound; does not change in size with Valsalva
Nuchal translucency (isolated)	Fluid at the posterior neck on first-trimester ultrasound	Non-septated, limited to the nuchal region, and measures < 3 mm in normal cases; a cystic hygroma is septated and larger, extending along the body

6. Traps and High-Yield Pearls

The most common way students lose points on cystic hygroma questions is by failing to connect the prenatal finding to karyotyping. When a vignette describes a septated cystic neck mass on prenatal ultrasound, the next best step is not MRI or surgical consultation. It is amniocentesis for chromosomal analysis. The test-writer is assessing whether you understand that cystic hygroma is a marker of aneuploidy first and a surgical problem second.

A second trap involves confusing cystic hygroma with simple increased nuchal translucency. Both appear on first-trimester screening, but cystic hygroma is septated, larger, and carries a much higher risk of chromosomal abnormality. If the vignette describes septations within the nuchal fluid, you should think cystic hygroma and escalate your concern for aneuploidy accordingly.

Another tested concept is the physical exam distinction. Transillumination is the single most important bedside finding. A vignette describing a soft, compressible, painless neck mass in a neonate that "glows when a light is placed behind it" is pointing you toward cystic hygroma. If the mass does not transilluminate, consider solid differentials like teratoma.

Finally, students sometimes select immediate surgical excision as the answer for a prenatal cystic hygroma with airway compromise. The correct answer in that scenario is the EXIT procedure, not emergent postnatal surgery. The concept being tested is your knowledge of how to secure an airway in a controlled fashion before the baby loses placental support.

The core competency: recognizing cystic hygroma as a lymphatic malformation with strong chromosomal implications, sequencing the diagnostic workup correctly (ultrasound then karyotype then MRI), and understanding that management depends on symptoms, resectability, and morphology.

1e:["$","$L2d",null,{"article":{"id":"6c040398-d6cf-44c2-8a6c-6954969ef230","title":"Higroma Kistik","content":"$2e","category":"THT-KL","created_at":"2026-05-15T13:06:54.726105+00:00","status":"published","subcategory":null},"questionCount":3,"sections":[{"id":"section-pathophysiology","num":"01","title":"Pathophysiology"},{"id":"section-classification-and-clinical-manifestation","num":"02","title":"Classification and Clinical Manifestation"},{"id":"section-diagnostic-workup","num":"03","title":"Diagnostic Workup"},{"id":"section-management-and-treatment","num":"04","title":"Management and Treatment"},{"id":"section-differential-diagnosis-and-distractors","num":"05","title":"Differential Diagnosis and Distractors"},{"id":"section-traps-and-high-yield-pearls","num":"06","title":"Traps and High-Yield Pearls"}],"hasSummaryTable":true}]