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Summary Table

Category	Details
Risk Factors	Age over 50, female sex (especially postmenopausal), autoimmune disease (Sjögren syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus), contact lens wear, prior refractive surgery (LASIK), prolonged screen use, low humidity environments, medications (antihistamines, anticholinergics, antidepressants, beta-blockers, diuretics, isotretinoin), vitamin A deficiency, diabetes
Etiology	Tear film instability from either decreased aqueous production or increased tear evaporation, leading to ocular surface inflammation and hyperosmolarity
Patient Presentation	Bilateral foreign body or sandy/gritty sensation, burning, stinging, fluctuating blurry vision that improves with blinking, photophobia, paradoxical reflex tearing, contact lens intolerance, symptoms worse at the end of the day or after extended reading/screen use
Classic Physical Exam	Decreased tear meniscus height, conjunctival injection, punctate epithelial erosions on fluorescein staining, reduced tear breakup time, capped or inspissated meibomian glands, filamentary keratitis in severe cases
Key Diagnostic Results	Schirmer test less than 10 mm wetting in 5 minutes (less than 5 mm is severe), tear breakup time less than 10 seconds, tear osmolarity greater than 308 mOsm/L, positive lissamine green or rose bengal staining of conjunctiva
Management	Stepwise: artificial tears and lifestyle modification first, then anti-inflammatory drops (cyclosporine 0.05%, lifitegrast 5%), warm compresses and lid hygiene for evaporative type, punctal plugs for refractory aqueous-deficient disease, autologous serum tears for severe cases
Keywords	"Gritty/sandy sensation," "paradoxical tearing," "symptoms worse by evening," "Sjögren syndrome with dry mouth," "Schirmer strip," "punctate epithelial erosions," "tear breakup time," "contact lens intolerance," "post-LASIK dryness"

1. Pathophysiology

The tear film is a three-layered structure essential for ocular surface health. The innermost mucin layer is produced by conjunctival goblet cells and allows the tears to adhere to the corneal epithelium. The middle aqueous layer, secreted by the main lacrimal gland and accessory glands, provides hydration, oxygen, and antimicrobial proteins. The outermost lipid layer, produced by the meibomian glands of the eyelids, prevents evaporation of the underlying aqueous layer.

Dry eye disease arises when this delicate film becomes unstable. The unifying mechanism is tear hyperosmolarity, which acts as the central pathological event. Whether the trigger is reduced tear production (aqueous-deficient type) or excessive evaporation (evaporative type), the result is a higher salt concentration on the ocular surface. This hyperosmolar environment damages the corneal and conjunctival epithelium, releases inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor alpha, matrix metalloproteinase-9), and recruits T-cells to the ocular surface.

This inflammatory cascade creates a self-perpetuating cycle: inflammation damages goblet cells (reducing mucin), injures lacrimal gland tissue (reducing aqueous), and disrupts meibomian glands (reducing lipid). Each loss of tear film component worsens hyperosmolarity, which intensifies inflammation. This is why chronic dry eye is fundamentally an inflammatory disease, and why anti-inflammatory therapy (rather than just lubrication) became a cornerstone of management.

The clinical symptoms map directly to this pathology. Patients describe a gritty or foreign body sensation because the unprotected corneal nerves are exposed and irritated. Blurry vision that fluctuates with blinking occurs because the tear film breaks up between blinks, distorting the optical surface. Paradoxical tearing occurs because the irritated cornea triggers a reflex arc to the lacrimal gland, producing a sudden flood of poor-quality reflex tears that lack the lipid and mucin needed for stability, so the patient cycles between dryness and overflow tearing.

2. Classification and Clinical Manifestation

Classification	Subtype	Mechanism	Clinical Clues
Aqueous-deficient	Sjögren syndrome	Autoimmune destruction of lacrimal and salivary glands; anti-Ro (SS-A) and anti-La (SS-B) antibodies	Dry eyes plus dry mouth (xerostomia), arthralgias, parotid enlargement, female age 40 to 60
Aqueous-deficient	Non-Sjögren	Age-related lacrimal gland atrophy, lacrimal duct obstruction, sensory denervation, medication-induced	Older patient, history of anticholinergic medications, no systemic autoimmune findings
Evaporative	Meibomian gland dysfunction	Obstruction or atrophy of meibomian glands, leading to deficient lipid layer	Most common cause overall, eyelid margin telangiectasia, capped gland orifices, often coexists with rosacea
	Lid-related	Incomplete blinking, lagophthalmos, exposure keratopathy (Bell palsy, thyroid eye disease)	Inferior corneal staining, history of facial nerve palsy or proptosis
	Contact lens or surface disease	Contact lens use, vitamin A deficiency, allergic conjunctivitis	Worse with lens wear, dietary or malabsorptive history

In real clinical practice and on examination questions, patients commonly have mixed disease with both aqueous deficiency and evaporative components, but vignettes usually emphasize one type to test recognition.

3. Diagnostic Workup

Test	Purpose	Findings in Dry Eye
Symptom questionnaire (e.g., Ocular Surface Disease Index)	Initial screening	Score greater than 13 suggests dry eye
Tear breakup time	Best initial test for tear film stability	Less than 10 seconds is abnormal
Schirmer test	Quantifies aqueous tear production	Less than 10 mm wetting in 5 minutes; less than 5 mm indicates severe deficiency
Ocular surface staining	Detects epithelial damage	Fluorescein highlights corneal punctate erosions; lissamine green or rose bengal stains devitalized conjunctival cells
Tear osmolarity	Most sensitive single objective test	Greater than 308 mOsm/L, or interocular difference greater than 8 mOsm/L
Matrix metalloproteinase-9 testing	Detects ocular surface inflammation	Positive result confirms inflammatory dry eye
Meibography	Images meibomian glands	Gland dropout in evaporative disease
Serologic testing	Workup for Sjögren syndrome	Anti-Ro/SS-A, anti-La/SS-B, ANA, rheumatoid factor

The diagnostic approach begins with a careful history and a validated symptom questionnaire to identify patients at risk. Once dry eye is suspected, the best initial objective test in office practice is the tear breakup time, because it is fast, noninvasive, and directly assesses tear film stability. After instilling fluorescein, the examiner asks the patient to blink and then hold the eye open while watching for the first dark spot in the tear film under a slit lamp with cobalt blue light. A breakup time of less than 10 seconds confirms tear instability.

The Schirmer test is then used to determine whether the dry eye is aqueous-deficient. A filter paper strip is placed in the lower lid for 5 minutes, and wetting is measured. Less than 10 mm suggests deficient aqueous production, and less than 5 mm is severe. If the test is performed without anesthesia (Schirmer I), it measures both basal and reflex tearing; with anesthesia, it isolates basal tearing.

Ocular surface staining identifies cellular damage: fluorescein highlights areas where the corneal epithelium is disrupted (punctate epithelial erosions), while lissamine green or rose bengal stain devitalized conjunctival cells in a characteristic exposure pattern (interpalpebral conjunctiva).

The most accurate confirmatory test, especially in modern practice and on board questions, is tear osmolarity, with values above 308 mOsm/L confirming the diagnosis. Tear hyperosmolarity is the unifying biomarker across all dry eye subtypes.

If a young or middle-aged woman presents with dry eyes, dry mouth, and joint pain, the workup must extend beyond ocular testing. Order anti-Ro (SS-A) and anti-La (SS-B) antibodies, antinuclear antibody, and rheumatoid factor to evaluate for Sjögren syndrome. A minor salivary gland (lip) biopsy showing focal lymphocytic sialadenitis is the gold standard for confirming Sjögren syndrome.

4. Management and Treatment

Step	Intervention	Indication
Step 1	Patient education, environmental modification, artificial tears, omega-3 supplementation, warm compresses, lid hygiene	All patients; mild disease
Step 2	Preservative-free artificial tears, topical anti-inflammatory therapy (cyclosporine 0.05% twice daily, lifitegrast 5% twice daily), short-course topical corticosteroids, punctal plugs, oral tetracyclines for meibomian gland dysfunction	Moderate disease or persistent symptoms despite step 1
Step 3	Autologous serum tears, scleral contact lenses, amniotic membrane therapy, oral secretagogues (pilocarpine, cevimeline)	Severe or refractory disease
Step 4	Surgical interventions (permanent punctal occlusion, tarsorrhaphy, salivary gland transplantation)	End-stage disease

Management follows a stepwise escalation based on severity. The first step in every patient is patient education and lifestyle modification: reducing screen time or applying the 20-20-20 rule (every 20 minutes, look at something 20 feet away for 20 seconds), using a humidifier, avoiding direct airflow from fans or air conditioning, and reviewing the medication list to identify and replace offending drugs when possible. Preservative-free artificial tears are the foundation of therapy and should be used 4 to 6 times daily; preservatives (especially benzalkonium chloride) can paradoxically worsen ocular surface damage with frequent use. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation (around 1000 to 2000 mg daily) may improve meibomian gland function.

For evaporative disease driven by meibomian gland dysfunction, warm compresses applied for 5 to 10 minutes daily soften meibum, followed by gentle eyelid massage and lid scrubs. Oral doxycycline 50 to 100 mg daily for 1 to 3 months is added for moderate cases (especially with rosacea), exploiting its anti-inflammatory and anti-lipase effect rather than its antibiotic action.

When step 1 fails, anti-inflammatory therapy is the next best step. Cyclosporine 0.05% ophthalmic emulsion is dosed one drop in each eye twice daily; clinical response often takes 3 to 6 months. Lifitegrast 5% ophthalmic solution is dosed one drop twice daily and may produce faster relief. Both target the T-cell mediated inflammation underlying chronic dry eye. Topical corticosteroids (loteprednol 0.5%) may be used for short courses (2 to 4 weeks) for acute flares, but chronic use is avoided due to risks of cataract formation, glaucoma, and infection.

If aqueous deficiency persists, punctal plugs (collagen for temporary trial, silicone for longer-term occlusion) are inserted into the lower lacrimal puncta to retain tears on the ocular surface. This is most useful in non-inflammatory aqueous-deficient dry eye; plugs should be avoided when active inflammation is present, as retaining inflammatory tears can worsen surface damage.

For severe or refractory disease, autologous serum tears (the patient's own serum diluted to 20 to 50% in saline) provide growth factors, vitamin A, and antiproteases that promote epithelial healing. Scleral contact lenses create a fluid reservoir over the cornea and can be transformative in severe Sjögren-related dry eye. Oral pilocarpine (5 mg four times daily) or cevimeline (30 mg three times daily) stimulates muscarinic receptors on lacrimal and salivary glands and is reserved for Sjögren syndrome with severe sicca symptoms.

Important contraindications: oral doxycycline must be avoided in pregnancy, breastfeeding women, and children under 8 years due to dental staining and bone growth effects (use erythromycin or azithromycin instead). Oral pilocarpine is contraindicated in uncontrolled asthma, narrow-angle glaucoma, and significant cardiovascular disease.

The next best step logic on examinations typically follows this order: confirm with tear breakup time and Schirmer, start preservative-free artificial tears, address lifestyle and medications, then escalate to cyclosporine or lifitegrast if symptoms persist after 4 to 8 weeks of consistent lubrication.

5. Differential Diagnosis and Distractors

Differential Diagnosis	Why It Looks Similar	Key Discriminator
Allergic conjunctivitis	Red, irritated eyes with tearing and foreign body sensation	Itching is the dominant symptom in allergy; vignette mentions seasonal triggers, atopy, or stringy mucous discharge; conjunctival papillae rather than punctate keratitis
Viral conjunctivitis	Red, watery, irritated eyes	Acute onset, preauricular lymphadenopathy, often unilateral at onset, contagious, follicular conjunctival reaction, recent upper respiratory infection
Bacterial conjunctivitis	Red, irritated eyes	Purulent (yellow-green) discharge with eyelids stuck together in the morning, papillary reaction, contagious
Blepharitis	Burning, foreign body sensation, often coexists with dry eye	Eyelid margin findings dominate: crusting, scales (anterior blepharitis) or capped meibomian glands (posterior blepharitis); examination focuses on lid margin rather than conjunctiva
Corneal abrasion	Foreign body sensation, photophobia, tearing	Acute onset with history of trauma (fingernail, contact lens, foreign body); unilateral, single linear or geographic fluorescein staining defect; intense pain
Recurrent corneal erosion	Episodic foreign body sensation upon waking	History of prior corneal trauma; recurrent episodes upon eye opening in the morning, focal staining defect
Anterior uveitis	Photophobia, red eye	Cells and flare in the anterior chamber, ciliary flush, miotic pupil, deep aching pain rather than gritty sensation
Vitamin A deficiency (xerophthalmia)	Dry eyes, conjunctival dryness	Setting of malnutrition or fat malabsorption (cystic fibrosis, bariatric surgery, alcoholism), Bitot spots on conjunctiva, night blindness, keratomalacia
Conjunctivochalasis	Foreign body sensation, tearing in older adults	Redundant conjunctival folds visible at the lower lid margin on slit lamp

6. Traps and High-Yield Pearls

The most common error students make is assuming that a patient who reports excessive tearing cannot have dry eye disease. The classic trap is a vignette describing an older woman with watery eyes and burning who is led to a diagnosis of nasolacrimal duct obstruction or allergy. The correct reasoning recognizes paradoxical reflex tearing as a hallmark of dry eye: the unstable tear film triggers a reflex arc that floods the ocular surface with poor-quality tears, which the patient experiences as overflow tearing rather than dryness. Look for the combination of tearing with gritty or burning sensation and symptoms that worsen by evening.

The second trap is mismanaging the inflammatory nature of chronic dry eye. Students often select repeated artificial tears or topical antibiotics as the next best step, when the correct answer in a patient with persistent symptoms despite consistent lubrication is to add an anti-inflammatory agent such as cyclosporine 0.05% or lifitegrast 5%. Remember that dry eye is fundamentally an inflammatory disease, and lubrication alone treats only the symptom, not the cycle.

A third high-yield pearl involves systemic disease screening. Any vignette with dry eyes plus dry mouth, joint pain, or parotid swelling should prompt evaluation for Sjögren syndrome with anti-Ro and anti-La antibodies, not just symptomatic ocular treatment. Missing the systemic diagnosis is a common reason for wrong answers, because the question is testing whether you can connect ocular findings to a systemic syndrome that requires rheumatologic referral and may carry a higher risk of lymphoma.

A fourth pearl is medication review. A patient on a long list of anticholinergic, antihistamine, antidepressant, or diuretic medications presenting with new-onset dry eye is often a question testing whether you will identify the iatrogenic contribution before prescribing more drops. The next best step is medication adjustment, not escalation of ocular therapy.

Finally, distinguish aqueous-deficient from evaporative disease, because the management differs. Evaporative disease driven by meibomian gland dysfunction is treated with warm compresses, lid hygiene, and oral doxycycline; punctal plugs may worsen this type by retaining inflammatory tears. Aqueous-deficient disease responds well to punctal occlusion and oral secretagogues. The core competency tested is integrating tear film physiology with stepwise management, recognizing systemic associations, and avoiding the cognitive trap of treating tearing as the opposite of dryness.

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